1. “ALOHA (Areal Locations of Hazardous Atmospheres),” software for dispersions of contaminants in the atmosphere, developed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the Environmental Protection Agency, October 1997.
2. AGA Plastic Pipe Manual for Gas Service, Catalog No. XR 8902, Arlington, VA: American Gas Association, February 1989.
3. American Petroleum Institute, “Evaluation Methodology for Software Based Leak Detection Systems,” API 1155, Washington, DC: API, February 1995.
4. American Petroleum Institute, “Pipeline Variable Uncertainties and Their Effect on Leak Detectability,” API 1149, Washington, DC: API, November 1993.
5. “ARCHIE (Automated Resource for Chemical Hazard Incident Evaluation),” prepared for the Federal Emergency Management Agency, Department of Transportation, and Environmental Protection Agency, for Handbook of Chemical Hazard Analysis Procedures (approximate date 1989) and software for dispersion modeling, thermal, and overpressure impacts.
6. ASME Code for Pressure Piping, B31: “Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems,” ANSI/ASME B31.8, 1986 ed.
7. ASTM, “Standard Test Methods for Notched Bar Impact Testing of Metallic Materials,” E23–93a, American Society for Testing and Materialism, July 1993.
8. Baker, W. E., et al., Explosion Hazards and Evaluation, New York: Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., 1986.
9. Battelle Columbus Division, “Guidelines for Hazard Evaluation Procedures,” New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 1985.
9a. Beighle, B., engineering consultant, Benchmark Engineering LLC, Billings, MT, personal correspondence.
10. Bernstein, P. L., Against the Gods: The Remarkable Story of Risk, New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1998.
11. Bolt, R., and Logtenberg, T., “Pipelines Once Buried Never to be Forgotten,” in Reliability on the Move: Safety and Reliability in Transportation (G. B. Guy, Ed.), London: Elsevier Applied Science, 1989, pp. 195–207.
12. Bowman, B., U.S. Army, Special Forces Branch, personal correspondence.
13. Bray, J., “Political and Security Risk Assessment,” presented at Pipeline Risk Assessment, Rehabilitation, and Repair Conference, Houston, TX, September 13–16, 1993.
14. Briggum, S., Goldman, G. S., Squire, D. H., and Weinberg, D. B., Hazardous Waste Regulation Handbook, New York: Executive Enterprises Publications Co., 1985.
15. Brown, J., Collette, P., and Goffred, R., “Utilities Focus on Cast Iron Management Programs,” Pipeline and Gas Journal, Vol. 222, No. 3, March 1995.
16. Caldwell, J. C., “Pipe Line Safety Arena,” Pipe Line Industry, November 1990, p. 15. California Governor’s Office of Emergency Services, October 2001.
17. Cameron, R. M., Halliday, W. S., and Stryker, R. A. “Electromagnetic Surveys of Pipelines and Cathodic Protection Systems,” PL Risk, September 1993.
18. Canadian National Energy Board, Joint Review Panel Commission Hearing Order GH-4-2001, “GSX Canada Pipeline Project; Application to Construct and Operate a New Natural Gas Pipeline and Related Facilities (in U.S. and Canada),” hearing held in Sidney, British Columbia, March 2003.
19. Clarke, N. W. B., Buried Pipelines, London: Maclaren and Sons, 1968.
20. Code of Federal Regulations, Vol. 59, No. 60, “Guidance for Facility and Vessel Response Plans Fish and Wildlife and Sensitive Environments,” National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, March 29, 1994.
21. Congram, G. E., “US Utility Expenditures Remain Near $6 Billion for 1995,” Pipeline and Gas Journal, December 1994.
22. Cornwell, J. B., and Martinsen, W. E., “Quantitative Risk Analysis of the Wahsatch Gas Gathering Pipeline System,” Norman, OK: Quest Consultants Inc.
23. Crane Valve Company, “Flow of Fluids through Valves, Fittings, and Pipe,” Crane Technical Paper No. 410, New York: CVC, 1986.
24. Davis, G., and Jones, D., “Risk Communication Guide for State and Local Agencies,”
25. DIN 2413, Deutsche Normen, Berlin, June 1972.
26. Dow Chemical, Fire and Explosion Index Hazard Classification Guide, 6th ed., Dow Chemical Co., May 1987.
27. Dragun, J., The Soil Chemistry of Hazardous Materials, Silver Spring, MD: Hazardous Materials Control Research Institute, 1988.
28. Ductile Iron Pipe Research Association, “Polyethylene Encasement Brochure,” Ply. Tech/11-92/10M, Birmingham, AL: Ductile Iron Pipe Research Association.
29. Esparza, E. D., et al., Pipeline Response to Buried Explosive Detonations, Vols. I and II, Pipeline Research Committee Final Report AGA Project PR-15-109, Southwest Research Institute Final Report SWRI project 02-5567, American Gas Association, August 1981.
30. Federal Register, Rules and Regulations, Vol. 54, No. 155, August 14, 1989, pp. 33420–33424, August 30, 1989, pp. 35989–35990.
31. Flinn, R. A., and Trojan, P. K., Engineering Materials and Their Applications, 3rd ed., Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1986, pp. 513–560.
32. Galley, M., Think Reliability, Houston, TX , personal communications.
33. Gas Research Institute, “Pipeline Inspection and Maintenance Optimization Program, PIMOS,” Final Report, prepared by Woodward-Clyde Consultants, February 1998.
34. Gleick, J., Chaos, New York: Penguin Books, 1988.
35. Golder and Associates, “Report on Hazard Study for the Bulk POL Facilities in the POA Area,” prepared for Municipality of Anchorage POL Task Force, August 9, 2002.
36. “Government Guidelines: State and Federal Regulatory Briefs,” Pipeline and Gas Journal, May 1995.
37. Greenwood, B., Seeley, L., and Spouge, J., “Risk Criteria for Use in Quantitative Risk Analysis.”
38. Gummow, R., Wakelin, R., and Segall, S., “AC Corrosion—A New Threat to Pipeline Integrity?” presented at ASME International Pipeline Conference, 1996.
39. Hanna, S. R., and Drivas, P. J., Guidelines for Use of Vapor Cloud Dispersion Models, New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 1987.
40. Huges, D., Assessing the Future: Water Utility Infrastructure Management, American Water Works Association, 2002, Chap. 12.
41. Huges, D., Assessing the Future: Water Utility Infrastructure Management, American Water Works Association, 2002, Chap. 13.
42. Huges, D., Assessing the Future: Water Utility Infrastructure Management, American Water Works Association, 2002, Chap. 23.
43. Jaques, S., “NEB Risk Analysis Study, Development of Risk Estimation Method,” National Energy Board of Canada report, April 1992.
44. Pluss, C., Niederbaumer, G., and Sagesser, R., “Risk Assessment of the Transitgas Pipeline,” Journal of Pipeline Integrity, September 2002.
45. Kaplan, S., “The General Theory of Quantitative Risk Assessment,” in Proceedings of Fifth Conference on Risk Based Decision Making in Water Resources, ASCE, 1991.
46. Kelly, K. A., and Cardon, N. C., “The Myth of 10–6 as a Definition of Acceptance Criteria,” EPA Watch, Vol. 3, No. 17.
47. Keyser, C. A., Materials Science in Engineering, 3rd ed., Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., 1980, pp. 75–101, 131–159.
48. Kiefner, J. F., “A Risk Management Tool for Establishing Budget Priorities,” presented at the Risk Assessment/ Management of Regulated Pipelines Conference, a NACE TechEdge Series Program, Houston, TX, February 10–12, 1997.
49. Larsen, K., et al., “Mitigating Measures for Lines Buried in Unstable Slopes,” Pipe Line Industry, October 1987, pp. 22–25.
50. Leeds, J. M., “Interaction between Coatings and CP Deserves Basic Review,” Pipeline and Gas Industry, March 1995.
51. Lockbaum, B. S., “Cast Iron Main Break Predictive Models Guide Maintenance Plans,” Pipe Line Industry, April 1994.
52. Martinez, F. H., and Stafford, S. W. “EPNG Develops Model to Predict Potential Locations for SCC,” Pipeline Industry, July 1994.
53. McAllister, E., Pipeline Rules Thumb, 5th ed., Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Co., 1998.
54. Megill, R. E., An Introduction to Risk Analysis, 2nd ed., Tulsa, OK: PennWell Books, 1984.
55. Merritt, F. S., Standard Handbook for Civil Engineers, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976, Sec. 21.
56. Microsoft Encarta and various Internet sources in the education field.
57. Miller, P. O., et al., “Dealing with Risk,” Canberra, Australia: The Institution of Engineers, March 1993.
58. Morgan, B., “The Importance of Realistic Representation of Design Features in the Risk Assessment of High-Pressure Gas Pipelines,” presented at Pipeline Reliability Conference, Houston, TX, September 1995.
59. Morgan, B., et al., “An Approach to the Risk Assessment of Gasoline Pipelines,” presented at Pipeline Reliability Conference, Houston, TX, November 1996.
60. Moser, A. P., Buried Pipe Design, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990.
61. Engberg, D. J., “Multiobjective Programming Models for the Planning of Offshore and Onshore Natural Gas Pipeline Systems,” Ph.D. dissertation, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 1980.
62. NACE, “Recommended Practice: Mitigation of Alternating Current and Lightning Effects on Metallic Structures and Corrosion Control Systems. National Association of Corrosion Engineers,” NACE Standard RP-01-77 (1983 Revisions), Item No. 53039.
63. National Energy Board, “Report of the Inquiry: Stress Corrosion Cracking on Canadian Oil and Gas Pipelines,” Report MH-2-95, November 1996.
64. National Transportation Safety Board, “Protecting Public Safety through Excavation Damage Prevention,” Safety Study NTSB/SS-97/01, Washington, DC: NTSB, 1997.
65. Naylor, C. E., and Davidowitz, D., “Brittle Behavior of Pipelines,” 94-DT-016.
66. Norman, R. S. “PE Technology Developments Aid Industry Safety, Cost Control,” Pipeline Industry, September 1994.
67. Office of Gas Safety, “Guide to Quantitative Risk Assessment (QRA),” Standards Australia ME-038-01 (Committee on Pipelines: Gas and Liquid Petroleum), Risk and Reliability Associates Pty Ltd., April 2002.
68. “One-Call Systems,” Pipeline Digest, March 1991, p. 15.
69. Pipeline Industries Guild, Pipelines: Design, Construction, and Operation, London, New York: Construction Press, Inc., 1984.
70. Playdon, D. K., “Risk Mitigation Strategy Study for Alliance Pipeline,” Edmonton, Alberta: Centre for Engineering Research, May 1997.
70a. Porter, M., A. Baumgard, and K. W. Savigny, “A Hazard and Risk Management System for Large Rock Slope Hazards Affecting Pipelines in Mountainous Terrain,” Proceedings of IPC 2002: 4th International Pipeline Conference, Calgary, Canada, September 2002.
70b. Porter, M., and K. W. Savigny, “Natural Hazard and Risk Management for South American Pipelines,” Proceedings of IPC 2002: 4th International Pipeline Conference, Calgary, Canada, September 2002.
71. Proceedings of the International Workshop of Offshore Pipeline Safety (D. V. Morris, Ed.), New Orleans, LA, December 4–6, 1991, College Station: Texas A&M University.
72. Prugh, R. W., and Johnson, R. W., Guidelines for Vapor Release Mitigation, New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 1988.
73. Riordan, M. A., “The IR Drop Paradigm Calls for a Change,” Pipe Line Industry, March 1991, p. 31–32.
74. Risk Assessment in the Federal Government: Managing the Process, Washington, DC: National Research Council, National Academy Press, 1983.
75. Rohrmann, B., “Verbal Qualifiers for Rating Scales: Sociolinguistic Considerations and Psychometric Data,” Project Report, Melbourne, Australia: University of Melbourne, September 2002.
76. Rusin, M., and Savvides-Gellerson, E., The Safety of Interstate Liquid Pipelines: An Evaluation of Present Levels and Proposals for Change, Research Study 040, Washington, DC: American Petroleum Institute, July 1987.
77. Siegfried, C., “Multiple Uses of ROW for Pipelines,” presented at American Gas Association Transmission Conference, May 18, 1971.
78. Simiu, E., Reliability of Offshore Operations: Proceedings of an International Workshop, NIST Special Publication 833, Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology.
79. Smart, J. S., and Smith, G. L., “Pigging and Chemical Treatment Pipelines,” presented at Pipeline Pigging and Inspection Technology Conference, Houston, TX, February 4–7, 1991.
80. Southey, R. D., Dawalibi, F. P., and Donoso, F. A. “Sharing the ROW can Affect Line Integrity,” Pipeline and Gas Journal, October 1993.
81. Stansberry, R. R., “Usually Sensitive Areas: A Definition for Pipeline Operators,” presented at API Pipeline Conference, Environmental Session, Dallas, TX, 1995.
82. Stephens, M., and Nessim, M., “Pipeline Integrity Maintenance Optimization—A Quantitative Risk-Based Approach,” presented at API Pipeline Conference, Dallas, TX, 1995.
83. Stephens, M. J., “A Model for Sizing High Consequence Areas Associated with Natural Gas Pipelines,” C-FER Topical Report 99068, prepared for Gas Research Institute, Contract 8174, October 2000.
84. Sutherland, V., and Cooper, C., Stress and Accidents in the Offshore Oil and Gas Industry, Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Co., 1991.
85. Tuler, S., et al. “Human Reliability and Risk Management in the Transportation of Spent Nuclear Fuel,” in Reliability on the Move: Safety and Reliability in Transportation (G. B. Guy, Ed.), London: Elsevier Applied Science, 1989, pp. 167–193.
86. URS Radian Corporation, “Environmental Assessment of Longhorn Partners Pipeline,” report prepared for U.S. EPA and DOT, September 2000.
87. U.S. Department of Transportation, Research and Special Programs Administration, Office of Pipeline Safety, “Annual Report of Pipeline Safety—Calendar Year 1988,” 400 Seventh St., S.W., Washington, DC 20590.
88. Vick, Reagan, et al., 1989.
89. Vick, S. G., Degrees of Belief: Subjective Probability and Engineering Judgment, Reston, VA: ASCE Press, 2002.
90. Vincent-Genod, J., Fundamentals of Pipeline Engineering, Paris: Gulf Publishing Co., 1984.
91. Weber, B., DNV, personal communications and various past project studies.
92. Wheeler, D. J., and Lyday, R. W., Evaluating the Measurement Process, 2nd ed., Knoxville, TN: SPC Press, 1989.
93. Williams, P. J., Pipelines and Permafrost: Physical Geography and Development in the Circumpolar North, Reading, MA: Longman, 1979.
94. Wright, T., Colonial Pipeline Company, Atlanta, GA, personal communications.
95. Zimmerman, T., Chen, Q., and Pandey, M, “Target Reliability Levels for Pipeline Limit States Design,” presented at ASME International Pipeline Conference, 1996.
83 & 111. GRI-00/0189: A Model for Sizing High Consequence Areas Associated with Natural Gas Pipelines Topical Report, Prepared by: Mark J. Stephens of C-FER Technologies; Edmonton, Alberta T6N 1H2, Canada. C-FER Report 99068. Prepared for: Gas Research Institute, Contract No. 8174.
222. Muhlbauer, W. Kent. Pipeline Risk Management Manual, 3rd edition. Houston, Texas: Gulf Publishing Co, 2004.
333. Nessim et al. Target Reliability Levels for Design and Assessment of Onshore Natural Gas Pipelines. International Pipeline Conference, Calgary, Alberta, 2004
777. REVIEW OF RULE BASED DESIGN AND RELIABILITY BASED DESIGN FOR ONSHORE PIPELINES Joe Zhou and Brian Rothwell, TransCanada PipeLines Limited Calgary, Alberta, Canada; Maher Nessim and Wenxing Zhou, C-FER Technologies, Inc. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
888. Proceedings of IPC 2004 International Pipeline Conference October 4 – 8, 2004 Calgary, Alberta, Canada IPC04-0321 TARGET RELIABILITY LEVELS FOR DESIGN AND ASSESSMENT OF ONSHORE NATURAL GAS PIPELINES Maher Nessim C-FER Technologies Wenxing Zhou C-FER Technologies Joe Zhou TransCanada Pipelines Limited Brian Rothwell TransCanada Pipelines Limited Martin McLamb BP Exploration Operating Company
9988. CSA Z662.1-07 Oil and gas pipeline systems, Annex O, Aug 2008
999. Recommended Practice DNV-RP-F105, Feb 2006
777 Response of Buried Pipelines Subject to Earthquake Effects; M.J. O’Rourke, X. Liu; Monograph Series; Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering Research;
Copyright © 1999 by the Research Foundation of the State University of New
York and the Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering Research.
1001 Sources for Hydrogen Gas Trapped in the Annuli of Pipeline Repair Sleeves SAER-6153
A. Lewis, H. Badairy, S. Duval, B. Isidro, Y. Al-Janabi, S. Mehta, H. Al-Mutairi, T. Newbound, W. Al-Obaid, S. Al-Rassam, A. Al-Shahrani, A. Sherik, I. Al-Thaiban
Material Performance Group Research & Development Division Research & Development Center
D. Catte
Cathodic Protection & Coatings Unit
Materials Engineering & Corrosion Control Division
Consulting Services Department
T. Lewis
Pipelines Specialist Unit
Pipeline Technical Support Division
Pipelines Department
1002
The Layer of Protection Analysis (LOPA) method
Anton A. Frederickson, Mr., Dr. Independent Consultant – member of Safety Users Group Network; 01 April, 2002
1003
Comparison of PFD calculation, SIL requirements according to IEC/EN 61508 and ISA-TR84.0.02 (1998) Prof. Dr. Ing. Habil. Josef Borcsok, HIMA Paul Hildebrandt GmbH Co KG, Industrial Automation
1004
“Pipelines Prove Safer Than Road or Rail”, D. Furchtgott-Roth, K.P. Green, Pipeline & Gas Journal, Dec 2013
1005
“Cost of Regulation Lessens With Coordination Among Agencies”, M. Purpura, Pipeline & Gas Journal, Dec 2013
1006
June 2014; http://opsweb.phmsa.dot.gov/pipeline_replacement/
1007
“LDC’s Continue to Upgrade the Nation’s Gas Distribtuion Network”, R. Tubb, Pipeline & Gas Journal, Dec 2013
1008
“Natural Gas Odorization monitoring for Safety and Consistency”, D. Amirbekyan, N. Stylianos; Pipeline & Gas Journal, Dec 2013
1008
“anchors and threats, do we know enough?”, A. hussain, S. Eldevik, L. Collberg, DNV GL, World Pipelines, May 2014
1009
“cost effective application of the ALARP Principle”, Dr Simon Hughes, Senior Safety Consutant, ERA Technology,
1010
“Solving the cybersecurity puzzle”, D. Fox, URS Corporation; pipeline and gas journal, Feb 2013.
Chap 3?
Ref International Electrotechnical Commission:
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD IEC/FDIS 31010
Risk management — Risk assessment techniques
Reference number IEC/FDIS 31010:2009(E)
1011 Leak Detection Study – DTPH56-11-D-000001, September 28, 2012, kiefner and associates
Leak_Detection_Study__DTPH56-11-D-000001_R_Draft_final_10-04-2012.pdf
Leak Detection Study – DTPH56-11-D-000001 FINAL
0339-1201Kiefner and Associates, Inc. 3-22 October 2012
1012 Department of Housing and Urban Development. Safety Considerations in Siting Housing Projects, 1975. HUD Report 0050137
1013 K.S. Mudan and P.A. Croce. SFPE Handbook, chapter Fire Hazard Calculations for Large Open Hydrocarbon Fires. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, Massachusetts, 2nd edition, 1995.4
1014 NISTIR 6546 Thermal Radiation from Large Pool Fires, Kevin B. McGrattan, Howard R. Baum, Anthony Hamins ; Fire Safety Engineering Division[ Building and Fire Research Laboratory, November 2000, National Institute of Standards and Technology, U.S. Department of Commerce
1015 battelle, oak ridge lab, Valve Study
1016 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debris_flow
1017 PHMSA Advisory Bulletin on floods; ADB-2013-02
1018 going by various names: NPHI, Natural Disaster Study, National Pipeline Risk Index http://www.npms.rspa.dot.gov/data/data_natdis.htm
1019 http://www.nopsema.gov.au/resources/human-factors/human-error/
1020 INGAA vintage pipe
1021 API 579
1022 kiefner, stability of manufacture/construction defects
1023 IPC2008-64039
1024 mallaburn http://pipelineandgasjournal.com/accurate-pipeline-inspection-data-requires-more-pig?page=4; September 2014, Vol. 241, No. 9
1025 U.S. Coast Guard Hazard Assessment Handbook, Commandant Instruction Manual M 16465.13
1026 http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/AtmCorros/CorrMaps.htm
1027 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_fatigue
1028 Stewart, H.E. et al, “Pipeline Crossings of Railroads and Highways.” American Gas Association Operating Section Proceedings. 91-DT-60, 1991, pp 443-468.
- “Pipelines Prove Safer Than Road or Rail”, D. Furchtgott-Roth, K.P. Green, Pipeline & Gas Journal, Dec 2013
- Manhattan Institute for Policy Research Issue Brief; “Pipelines are Safest For Transportation of Oil and Gas”, 2013, http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/ib_23.htm#.VPB7_Wd0z2A
- “Fuel-hauling Trains Could Derail at 10 a Year”, Daily Herald, Feb 2015; (http://www.dailyherald.com/article/20150222/business/150229640/)
- Muhlbauer, W. Kent. Pipeline Risk Management Manual, 3rd edition. Houston, Texas: Gulf Publishing Co, 2004
TTO Number 5 Integrity Management Program Delivery Order DTRS56-02-D-70036 Low Frequency ERW andLap Welded Longitudinal Seam Evaluation FINAL REPORT Revision 3 Submitted by: Michael Baker Jr., Inc. In association with: Kiefner and Associates, Inc. CorrMet Engineering Services, PC, April 2004
- Oil Pipeline Characteristics and Risk Factors: Illustrations from the Decade of Construction A December 2001Report Prepared by John F. Kiefner, President, Kiefner & Associates, Inc.; Cheryl J. Trench, President, Allegro Energy Group; copyright API
- INGAA, Integrity Characteristics of Vintage Pipelines, Battelle Memorial Institute, F-2002-50435. prepared by E. F. Clark, B. N. Leis, R. J. Eiber, Oct 2004.
- Battelle Final Report No. 13-001 Final Report Effectiveness of Hydrostatic Testing for Assessing the Integrity of ERW and Flash-weld Pipe Seams K. M. Kolovich and J. F. Kiefner Kieffner & Associates, Inc. January 15, 2013
- DoT PHMSA pipeline incident statistics: http://www.phmsa.dot.gov/portal/site/PHMSA/menuitem.6f23687cf7b00b0f22e4c6962d9c8789/?vgnextoid=fdd2dfa122a1d110VgnVCM1000009ed07898RCRD&vgnextchannel=3430fb649a2dc110VgnVCM1000009ed07898RCRD&vgnextfmt=print
- National Academies Press, TRB Special Report 311: Effects of Diluted Bitumen on Crude Oil Transmission Pipelines (2013) http://www.nap.edu/catalog/18381/trb-special-report-311-effects-of-diluted-bitumen-on-crude-oil-transmission-pipelines
- Exhibit A, Affidavit of John Kiefner
- “Comprehensive Study to Understand Longitudinal ERW Seam Failures”, Phase 1 Report, https://primis.phmsa.dot.gov/matrix/PrjHome.rdm?prj=390
- Metallurgical reports on pressure test failures on Pegasus Pipeline, 12 reports dated 2005-2006, contained in EMPCO-CIV-750479.pdf
Reductionism
Groundwater infiltration into low press distribution systems
Cyber threat, security
EMP, electromagnetic pulse
Weaponry
Solar flare, solar storm
Threaded connection, loosening of
Mechanical connection,
Residual stress
Sour gas, risk assessment excerpt
Prouction wells, sour gas
Thermal radiation,
Thermal radiation, effects of
Aerosol
Soil overburden, and dispersion
Effectiv wall thickness
Stress-carrying capacity
Available wall thickness
Rupture and mechanical effects
Mechanical effects from rupture
Hazaard zone
Mpy,
and external corrosion,
and internal corrosion,
and cracking
exposure, as part of PoF
mitigation, as part of PoF
resistance, as part of PoF
See acronym list
Aboveground facilities 44, 50-1, 227, 246
Abrasion, coating 89
Absolute risk estimates 15, 293-330
AC interference 83
Acceptable risk 334
Acute hazards 136, 381
Adhesion 89
Administrative processes 348-52
Age 233
facility 283
inspection (see also Information degradation) 31
pipeline 26, 30-1
system 30-1
of verification 105
ALARP (as low as reasonably practical) 337-40
Algorithms (see Risk)
Anchoring 48, 245
Animal attack 48-9
Anomaly 99, 107, 366, 381
Antifreeze 271, 280
Area of operation 163
As low as reasonably practical (see ALARP)
Aseismic faulting 113
Assessment (see Risk)
Atmospheric corrosion (see Corrosion)
Atmospheric stability classes 150, 309-10
Attack potential (see also Sabotage) 201-2
Automatic valve 162
Avalanche failure mode 143
B31G 366
Backfill 124-5, 381
Bacteria 72, 77
Barlow’s formula 94, 97, 364
Barriers 51, 204
Bathtub curve 6
Bias 31-2
Bimodal distribution 191
Biodegradation 140-2
Blast effects (see Over pressure effects)
BLEVE (boiling liquid, expanding vapor explosion; see also Vapor cloud) 135, 272, 307
Blockades 163
Blockages 214-5
Boiling liquid, expanding vapor explosion
(see BLEVE)
Boiling point 153, 155, 358-9
Bounding curve 299
Brittle fracture (see Fatigue) 143
Buckling 96, 250, 364
Buoyancy 250, 364
Burn radius (see also Fire,
Thermal radiation)
default 311
Business interruption (see Service)
Caliper pig (see Pigging)
Carbon dioxide (see CO2)
Carbon steel (see Steel)
Carcinogenicity 145
Casings 65-7, 70, 84-5, 96, 205, 381
Cast iron 226, 234
Cathode (see CP)
Cathodic protection (see CP)
Charpy V-notch tests (see Tests) 143
Check valve 160, 163, 381
Checklist,
Chronic hazards 136-8, 381
CIS (close internal survey; see also Pipe-to-soil potential, DCVG) 81,
128, 231, 381
Class location (see Third party)
Close internal survey (see CIS)
Cloud
dispersion/size of 149-59, 309, 328
vapor (see also Vapor) 135
CO2 72, 211-2
Coatings 36, 85-90, 125, 381
application of 87
for atmosphere 68-70
concrete 234
conditions 26, 230
defects (see also Cracks, Fatigue)
89, 366
inspection (see also Inspection of) 89
internal 73
offshore 249
Combustible 137, 155, 359
Commissioning 38
Communications
of risk 352-5
SCADA (see SCADA)
Community partnering 201-3
Composite pipelines 234
Compressor, sabotage
(see Sabotage)
Computer 37-8, 183-6
environments 183-94
permissive 280
programs 38
software 186
use in risk program 37-8, 185
Concrete pipe 234
Concrete slab, failure probability 298
Conductivity (see Terrain)
Confidence limits 304-5
Consequences 6
Construction 38, 124-5
distribution systems 234-7
facilities 269
issues 99
offshore 253-4
Containment 164
Contamination 135, 153, 155, 211, 272, 321, 376
Continuous improvement (see also Quality) 18, 342
Control documents (see Documents)
Correlation 192
Corrosion 40, 44, 61-90, 99, 109, 267-8, 381
atmospheric 32-71, 229, 248, 267, 284
buried metal 284
crevice (see also ERW pipe) 98
distribution systems 228-33
facilities 267-8, 283-6
galvanic 75
hydrogen stress corrosion cracking (see HSCC)
internal 71-4, 229-30, 248, 267, 283, 382
offshore 247-9
product 72
rate 64, 233
selective seam 98
subsurface 74-90, 230, 248, 267
Costs
direct 220-1
indirect 221-2
risk management 344-8
Counterfeit materials 124
Cover (see Depth of cover)
CP (cathodic protection) 75, 230-1, 249, 284, 379, 381
corrosion threat 78-85
surveys 78-82
Crack arrestors 144-5
Cracks (see also HIC, HSCOS, SCC, Fatigue, Fractures) 102-4, 110, 144-5, 234, 366
Critical instruments 131
Cumulative risk (see CR)
Current 168, 250-3
Customers 18, 210, 217
Damage (see also Resistaance) 317
prevention 246
states 306, 314-6, 319-27
Data collection 10-11, 179
Data management and analyses 177-96, 226
DC interference 84
DCVG (direct current voltage gradient; see CIS, Pipe-to-soil potential)
Deductive reasoning 2-3
Defect (see also Anomaly, Crack, Fracture) 366
Degradation
inspection (see Information)
information (see Information)
Delivery parameters deviation (see DPD)
Dent 366
Department of Transportation (see DOT)
Depth of cover 178
distribution 227
failure probability 298
offshore 245
survey 128, 380
third party 46-8
Design 38, 40, 44
distribution systems 234-7
facilities 268-9
human errors 119
index 91-115, 118
offshore 249-52, 253
pressure 94
Detection opportunity 56
Deterioration (see Corrosion)
Detonation (see Vapor cloud)
Direct current voltage gradient (see DCVG)
Direct evidence 34, 90, 105-10
Dispersion 148-9, 156, 190
Distribution systems 223-42
Documents 29, 129, 132, 281
computer 188-9
control 349, 352
Dosage (see Toxicity)
Dose-response assessment 140-2
DOT (Department of Transportation) 165, 259, 328, 382
DPD (delivery parameters deviation) 214-6
Drain volumes 142, 147-8, 382
Drinking water contamination 321
Drug test 128, 238
Ductile iron 234
Ductility 143
Dynamic segmentation 26, 181-2
EA (environmental assessment) 170
Earthquake (see Seismic)
Education (see Public)
Electric resistance welding pipe (see ERW)
Electrolyte (see Soil corrosivity)
Electromagnetic surveys 53
Emergency drill 218
Emergency response 162, 255
Employee stresses (see Stressors)
Entropy 1
Environmental
assessment (see EA)
hazards (see Hazardous)
module 166-9
not involving pipe spills 167
persistence (see Biodegradation)
sensitive areas 167-8
shoreline 168-9
Equivalent surface area 265
Erosion (see also Land movement, Soil) 113, 254
ERW pipe (electric resistance welding pipe)
98, 366, 382
Estuaries 168
Evacuation 163
Event tree 14, 25
Events (see Risk variables)
Evidence
direct 34, 90, 105-10
unquantifiable 16
Expert judgment 8
Explosion (see Overpressure)
Explosion limit (see also LFL) 149
Exposure 45, 66
Exposure pathways (see Toxicity)
External loadings 94, 96, 97, 266, 364
Facilities (see also Aboveground) 100, 257-92
Failure 4, 301, 314, 382
Failure mechanisms/modes 99
Failure modes and effects analysis (see FMEA)
Failure probability (see also Failure rate) 299-302, 314, 320
Failure rate 5-7, 294-8, 312-6, 319-20
Failure investigation (see Inspection)
Fatalities (see also Value of human life) 295-6, 305-6, 321, 355, 375
Fatigue 102-4, 143, 234, 236, 250, 268, 382
Fault tree analysis 14, 25
FBE (fusion bonded epoxy) 78
Fences (see Barriers)
Fire/ignition scenarios (see also Thermal radiation) 135, 149, 272, 309
probability 302-4
Fixed length segmentation (see also Sectioning) 26, 181
Flammability limits (see also Ignition) 359
Flange 101
Flash point 137
Flashing fluids (see also HVL) 361-2
Flexible pipe 235
Flowpath modeling 148
Fluid modulus 367
FMEA (failure modes and effects analysis) 14
Fracture mechanics 143-6, 366
Fracture toughness 102-4, 143-6, 382
Fractures (see also Cracks) 102-4, 110, 143
Frequency 5, 32, 319
Frost heave 112
Fusion bonded epoxy (see FBE)
Fuzzy logic 3
Galvanic corrosion (see Corrosion)
Gas release (see Release)
Gas Research Institute (see GRI)
Gas spill (see Spill)
Geographic information system (see GIS)
GIS (geographic information system) 179
Global positioning system (see GPS)
GPS (global positioning system) 53, 179
Gravity flow pipe (see Concrete pipe)
GRI (Gas Research Institute) 45, 306, 369
Ground/air interface 66
Ground-penetrating radar 53
Groundwater (see Contamination)
Handling, during installation 125
HAZ (heat affected zone) 103-4, 382
Hazard 110-5, 136-42, 281, 382
definition 3
identification 119
natural 110-112, 250-3
zone 172-4, 306-16
Hazard and operability study (see HAZOP)
Hazard ranking system (see HRS)
HAZOP (hazard and operability study) 14, 25
HCA (high consequence area) 166
HCL (high-low-close) chart 192
Heat affected zone (see HAZ)
Heat of combustion 359, 272, 155
Heat flux (see Thermal radiation)
HIC (hydrogen induced cracking) 78, 103
High consequence area (see HCA)
High population area (see HPA)
High value area (see HVA)
High-low-close (see HCL)
Highly volatile liquid (see HVL)
Histogram (see also Frequency) 190
Historic areas 170
Hole size (see also Materials, Fracture mechanics, Charpy test, Spill size, Rupture, Cracks, Stress) 142-6, 303, 314-5
Holiday (see Coating defect)
Holiday detection (see Coatings, Inspection)
Housekeeping and human error 128
HPA (high population area) 166
HRS (hazard ranking system) 152
HSCC (hydrogen stress corrosion cracking) 77-8
Hueristics 31-2
Human error (see also Procedures for prevention, Incorrect operations) 117-8, 197-200, 265, 278, 280-2
Human life, value of (see Value of human life, Fatalities)
Humidity
HVA (high value area) 168
HVL (highly volatile liquid) 147-8, 259, 272, 311, 340
Hydrogen embrittlement (see HIC, HSCC)
Hydrogen stress corrosion cracking (see HSCC)
Hydrostatic pressure test (see Test)
Ice, scour from 254
Ignition (see also Fire) 302-4
ILI (in-line inspection; see also Inspections) 34-5, 90, 379, 382
Impact resistance
Impressed current (see CP)
Incorrect operations (see also Human error)
40, 44, 102, 117-32
distribution systems 237
facilities 268-71
index 117-132, 205, 237
offshore systems 253-5
sabotage 205
Induced current (AC) 83
Inductive reasoning 2-3
Information degradation 31, 64
Inhibitor (see Internal corrosion)
Injuries (see Fatalities)
In-line inspection (see ILI; see also Inspections)
Inspection (see also Survey) 124
age 31, 105
construction
degradation (see Information degradation)
internal (see also Pigging) 107
sabotage potential (see Sabotage)
techniques 379
visual 36, 380
Integrity
assessments 29, 109-10
verification 100, 105-10, 236-7, 250, 268
Insulation 66
Intelligence gathering (see Sabotage)
Intelligent pigging (see Pigging)
Interference currents 82-5
Internal corrosion (see Corrosion)
Internal inspection (see Inspection)
Internal inspection tool (see Inspection)
Internal pressure 94
Interview data 31
IR drop (see also Corrosion) 79-80
Jet fire (see also Fire/ignition scenarios) 149, 308
J-lay offshore pipe installation technique
JNA (job needs analysis) 270
Joining of materials 124
Joints (joining) 124, 234-5, 382, 383
JSA (job safety analysis) 270
JTA (job training analysis) 270
Key-lock sequence programs 131
Lacustrine regions 168
Laminations 98
Land movements 110-5, 237, 252, 268, 282, 382
Land use issues (see also Set back distances) 344
Landslides 93, 110-5
Leak detection 159-162, 315
capabilities of 159-63
by odorization 241
staffing levels 272-5
at stations 272-5
techniques 159-63
Leak history 35
Leak impact factor (see LIF)
Leak rate 361-2
Leak volume 142
Length effects of segmentation
Length effects when roll-up, aggregations
Level of proof 118
LFL (lower flammability limit) 149
LIF (leak impact factor) 40, 44, 99, 104, 133-75,
191-4, 382
Line locating 51-53
Line marking 52
Liquid release (see Release, Spill)
Load 92, 254
Locating (see Line, Pipeline)
Lock-out devices 131
Logic
deductive (see Deductive reasoning)
inductive (see Inductive reasoning)
ladders 131
Loss limiting actions 164
Lower flammability limit (see LFL)
Magnetic flux (see ILI)
Magnetic methods 53
Maintenance 239-40, 255
facilities 271
human error 132
prioritization 343
reports 29
schedule 132
Management of change (see MOC)
Manufacturing, pipe 98, 179
MAOP (maximum allowable operating pressure) 94-110, 362, 382
Maps and records 129
Marking (see Line marking)
Materials 38
selection 123-4
stress (see Stress)
strength 97
toughness 143
Matrix 25
Maximum allowable operating pressure (see MOP)
Maximum operating pressure (see MOP)
Maximum permissible pressures (see also MOP) 94
Mean 189-90
Measurements 190
Mechanical effects 135, 231-2
Mechanical error preventers 131-2, 239, 271
Median 189-90
Metallurgy (see also Toughness, Fracture
mechanics) 143
Meter stations 259
MIC (microbially induced corrosion) 77
Microbially induced corrosion (see MIC)
Microorganisms (see MIC)
Mill certifications (see also Pipe strength) 99
Minimum test pressure (see MTP)
Mitigations 41, 57-60, 114-5, 154, 202, 254, 298, 342-4
MOC (management of change) 269-70
Model
calculating variables 34
choices 25
design checklist 11
examples 369-73
facility 275-86
indexing 24, 25
matrix 23
modeling 3, 9-10
performance test 17-8, 194
probabilistic 23-4
qualitative 16
quantitative 16
release 146-8
risk 11, 14, 22-33, 39, 225, 264, 333, 350
scope and resolution 30
Molecular weight 151, 155, 157, 158
Monte Carlo simulation (see Sensitivity analysis)
MOP (maximum operating pressure) 94, 119-20, 363
National Fire Protection Association (see NFPA)
Natural hazards (see also Hazards) 110-112, 250-3
NDE (nondestructive evaluation; see also NDT) 285
NDT (nondestructive testing; see also NDE) 89, 380
Negligible risk (see Acceptable risk)
Network (see Computer)
NFPA (National Fire Protection Association) 136, 276
Nondestructive evaluation (see NDE)
Nondestructive testing (see NDT)
NRA (numerical risk assessment) 23, 294
Numerical risk assessment (see NRA)
Odorizations 241
Offshore (see also Platform) 243-56
One-call systems 44, 51-3, 227
hit rate 45
reports 28
One-in-a-million chance 341
OPA (other populated area) 166
Operators (see also Training) 22, 29
Operations (see also Incorrect) 125, 216
data 29
distribution 238
facilities 269
offshore 254
Organic 37
Oscillations (see Vortex, Wave)
Other populated area (see OPA)
Outage period 220
Outside force (see Third-party damage)
Overpressure (blast) effects 150, 173, 306, 311
Painting (see Coatings, Atmospheric)
Palustrine regions 168, 382
Particle trace analysis 148
Patrol 30, 54-7, 247, 380
PE (polyethylene pipe) 234
Performance tests, model (see Model)
Permeability 26, 157
pH, soil 77, 78
Photolysis (see Biodegradation)
Pigging (see also Inspection) 74, 107, 128, 382
PIM (pipeline integrity management) 259
Pinhole leak (see Hole size)
Pipe strength 92-101, 143-6, 363-6
Pipeline
construction 93-4, 99
depth 298
dynamics 213
installation (see J-lay, S-lay)
integrity management (see PIM)
locating (see Line locating)
operators (see Operators)
products 357-9
properties (characteristics) 112
seam (see also ERW) 98
strength (see also Materials) 363-8
wall flaws 110
Pipe-to-soil potential (see also CIS, DCVG) 81-2
Plastic 234-6
Platform (see Offshore)
Point event 179-80
Polarization (see Surveys)
Political instability (see Sabotage)
Polyethylene pipe (see PE)
Polyvinyl chloride pipe (see PCP)
Pool size, liquid spill 151-53
Population density 26, 28, 30, 128, 165-6, 263, 305
Potential (see Surge)
Potential damage (see also Sabotage, Third-party damage) 99
Potential threats 56
Potential upset (see Upset)
PPA (pressure point analysis; see Leak detection)
PPM (predictive preventive maintenance) 132, 280
PRA (probabilistic risk assessment) 23-25, 294
Predictive preventive maintenance (see PPM)
Presentation graphics 188
Pressure, maximum (see also MOP) 94
Pressure point analysis (see PPA)
Pressure switch (see Safety)
Pressure test (see Test)
Pressure vessel 101
Preventions 29, 73
Prioritization, of mitigation 343
Probabilistic risk assessment (see PRA)
Probability (see also Failure probability) 4-5, 104
of exceedance 113
Procedures
for human error prevention (see also Human error) 132, 281
for internal corrosion (see Corrosion)
maintenance (see Maintenance)
for risk program administration 352
for surge (see Surge)
Process safety management (see PSM)
Product
characteristics (see Product hazard)
contamination (see Contamination)
corrosivity (see Corrosion)
hazard 136-42, 272, 383
specifications deviation (see PSD)
Programs (see Computers)
Property, high value (see HVA, Land use, Set back distances)
PSD (product specification deviation) 211-4
PSM (process safety management) 259
Public education 44, 53, 228, 246, 383
Pumps, sabotage (see Sabotage)
PVC (polyvinyl chloride pipe)
QRA (quantitative risk assessment)
23, 294, 329-30, 337
Quality 18, 32, 182, 346
assurance (QA) and Control (QC) 182-3
data 181-2
Qualitative model (see Model)
Quantitative risk assessment (see QRA)
Quantitative model (see Model)
Radar (see Ground penetrating)
Radiant heat (see Thermal radiation)
Radiation, thermal (see Thermal)
Radio frequency detection (see RF detection)
Range (see Dispersion)
Rangeability (see Dispersion)
Rate (see Corrosion)
Reaction times 163
Reactivity 137-8
Receptor (see also LIF) 165, 170-4, 241-2, 255, 305-6, 375-7
Rectifier 80, 82, 383
Rehabilitation 236
Release (see also Leak, Spill) 147, 383
Reliability 19
Relief valves (see Safety system)
Remote terminal units (see RTU)
Remote valve 160, 163
Remotely operated vehicle (see ROV)
Reportable quality (see RQ)
Request for proposal (RFP; see Proposals)
Resistivity (see Soil)
Resource allocation 343
Revenues from pipeline 220
RF detection (radio frequency) 52-3
RFP (request for proposal; see Proposals)
Rigid pipe 234
Risk
absolute 15
acceptable 334
algorithms 278, 369-73
assessment methods 7-8, 10, 22, 36
communications 352
comparisons 355
criteria 336-42
cumulative 333
decision points
definition 4
of environmental damage (see
Environmental)
factors 29
individual 335
management 7, 13, 10, 18, 22, 178,
225, 331-55
management program (see RMP)
model (see Model)
other 355
process 9-10
program administration 348-352
relative 15, 44
roll ups (see aggregation)
of sabotage (see Sabotage)
scope 30
societal 335
variables 22-4, 45, 94-110, 178, 263
Riverian regions 168, 383
River crossing survey 47
RMP (risk management program) 348
Root cause analysis 36
ROV (remotely operated vehicle) 251
ROW (right of way) 29, 38, 383
condition 44, 54, 228
distribution systems 228
facilities 257-9
offshore 247
RQ (reportable quality; see also
Chronic hazards) 138
RSTRENG 366
RTU (remote terminal unit) 126
Rupture (see Hole size)
Sabotage (see also Incorrect operations) 200-206
attack potential 201
distribution systems 240
mitigations (see also Mitigations) 202
potential for (see Potential threats)
Safety
facilities 268
factor 94-102, 236, 250
programs 128
systems 119-23, 238, 279, 383
SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition) 120, 126-8, 238, 257,
270, 281, 383
SCC (stress corrosion cracking) 78, 103, 383
Scientific method 2
Scope 13
Scoring 182
Scour 113
Screening analysis 15
Seabed stability 252
Secondary containment 142, 148, 154,
272, 383
Sectioning (see Segmenting)
Security forces 282
Segmenting 10, 22, 26, 102, 178, 226,
260-1
data 181
distribution systems 226
manually establishing 26
risk 323
Seismic 112-3, 254, 383
Seismograph activity 48-9
Sensing devices 163
Sensitivity analysis 195-6
Service interruption 209-22, 263
Set back distances 311-12
Shear 363
Signal-to-noise ratio 333
Signs 51, 54, 245, 247
S-lay offshore pipe installation technique 253
Smart pig (see Pigging)
SMYS (specified minimum yield strength) 78, 364, 383
Sniffers 160
Societal versus individual risk 335-6
Software (see Computer)
Soil
conditions 26, 30, 36
conductivity 53
corrosivity 76-8
movement (see Land movement)
permeability 26, 157
pH 77, 78
resistivity 77, 85
settling 111
shrinking 111
spill penetration 147
swell 111
Sour gas 328-9
Spans 96
Spatial analyses 181
Special loadings 94
Specifications 211-3
pipe (see SMYS)
Specified minimum yield strength (see SMYS)
Spending prioritization (see also Cost) 343
Spill (see also Leak, Release) 142, 147
adjustments to size 159-65
migration 153-4
offshore 255
pool size 151-3
score 104, 146
size 148-59, 240-1, 272, 312-29
Spill limiting actions (see also Spill)
offshore 255
SQL (structured query language) 179
SSCC (sulfide stress corrosion cracking) 103
Staffing levels and leak detection 272
Standard deviation 190
State soil geographic (see STATSGO)
Stations (see Facilities)
Statistics 5, 189-92
STATSGO (state soil geographic) 77, 78
Steel, carbon (see also Fatigue) 234
Steel mills 99
Strain gauge (see also Land movement) 114-5
Stress 144-5, 197-200, 363, 383
concentrations 366
corrosion cracking (see SCC)
human errors (see also Human errors) 197-8
hydrogen stress corrosion cracking (see HSCC)
hydrostatic test (see Test)
levels and fatigue (see Fatigue)
longitudinal 364
MAOP (see MAOP)
materials (see Materials)
riser 366
soil movement (see Soil, Land movement)
temperature 211, 365
tensile 364
wall thickness calculations 99
Stress corrosion cracking (see SCC)
Stressors, workplace 197-8
Structured query language (see SQL)
Subjective risk assessment 16
Subsurface corrosion (see Corrosion)
Successive reactions 267
Sulfates 72, 211-2
Sulfide stress corrosion cracking (see SSCC)
Supervisory control and data acquisition (see SCADA)
Supports 66
Surge 250, 383
potential 30, 104-5, 236, 250, 268
pressure calculations 367-8
pressure s. (pressure spike) 104, 367
water hammer (pressure s.) 104, 367
Surveillance (see Patrol)
Surveys (see also CIS, DCVG, Inspections) 29-30, 128-9
air patrol 128
close interval (see CIS)
coating condition 128
holiday detection (coatings)
leak (see also Leak) 380
line locating (see Line locating)
pigging (see also Pigging) 128
polarization 81-2
population density (see also Population density) 128
route 93
soil movements (see Soil, Land movements)
subsea (sonar) profile 128, 251
thermographic 128
water crossings 128, 380
System integrity
distribution system 225
System losses
distribution system 225
System safety factor (see also Safety)
120
System strength 94
Tanks 260, 285
Technique, choosing 16
Temperature (see also Stress) 211, 365
Terrain conductivity (see Soil)
Test leads (see Cathodic protection,
Pipe-to-soil potential, Inspection)
Tests
Charpy (see also Charpy) 143
model performance (see Model)
nondestructive (see NDT)
pressure (hydrostatic) 30, 108-9, 379, 382
Thermal damage potential 146
Thermal effects 152-3, 173
Thermal radiation (see also Fire, Burn radius)
138, 306-9
Third-party damage 28, 40, 43-54, 93,
118, 383
distribution systems 227-34
exposure
facilities 282-3
hit rate 45
mitigation analysis 57-60
offshore 244-7
stations 282-3, 173
Threat assessment (see Sabotage)
Toughness, of pipe (see Fracture mechanics)
Toxicity 138-42
Toxicological risk assessment 16, 142
TQM (Total Quality Management,
see Quality)
Traffic 266, 283
Training 30, 129-31, 218, 270-1
Tsunamis 113, 250
UFL (upper flammability limit) 149
Ultrasonic ILI (see ILI)
Unaccounted for gas 225
Uncertainty 8, 25, 333
Unconfined vapor cloud explosion
(see Cloud, Vapor cloud)
Uniform color code 53
Upper flammability limit (see UFL)
Upset potential 72, 211
Vacuum extraction 53
Value
added work 18
of human life (see also Fatalities) 347
of mitigation (see Mitigation)
Valves
automatic (see also Automatic) 162
causing surges (see Surge)
check valve (see Check)
relief v. (see Relief)
remote v. (see Remote)
spacing of 163
three-way 131
Vandalism (see Sabotage)
Vapor
clouds (see also Clouds) 135, 149, 307, 309
dispersion 309
releases 146
toxic 142, 150-1
Variability
variation 8, 10-1, 190
Variables (see Risk)
Vehicles (see Traffic)
Vibration monitoring 276, 279
Visual (see Inspections)
Volumes (see Spill size)
Vortex shedding 250-1
Wall thickness 94, 98, 383
probability failure 298
Warning tape, mesh 46-7
Waste (see Quality)
Water crossing surveys (see Surveys)
Water hammer (see Surge)
Wave action 168, 250-2
Weather 267, 282
Weighting 25, 32, 33
Welding (see Joining)
Wetlands 168, 327, 377
What-if trials 186, 196
Wildlife (see Animal attack)
Workplace stressors (see Stressors)
X-ray (see Inspection)
Zone-of-Influence 35, 180-1